Anti-Semitism

 

This a series of posts explores anti-Semitism, its origins, the motivations behind it, its various manifestations, its consequences, and its possible future. The series also proposes a method for determining when an act or statement is anti-Semitic and concludes with some suggestions for remedying the consequences of anti-Semitism. A series of discussion questions is also included.

 

Review of the previous post.

The previous post, post number 11 of 33, was the fourth of four posts discussing the consequences of Jewish separateness.

Preview of this post.

This post, post number 12 of 33, is the first of eight posts discussing other causes of anti-Semitism and focuses on the role of Hellenic and Roman writings.

 

 

1. Hellenic Writings

Jew hatred can be found in Hellenistic Egypt where the Jews of Exodus were described as diseased, misanthropic, lepers[1], and outcast, and were sometimes described as ritual slaughterers and cannibals. Jews were described as hating all people. This hatred between Jews and Greeks reached a crescendo during the rule of Antiochus IV and the Hasmonean revolt led by Mattahias and Judah Maccabee^[2]. As an example of the writing of this time which took Jewish texts and distorted them into lies, one can refer to Lysimachus, an Egyptian historian:

 

“Moses exhorted them to show kindliness to no one, to follow only the worst advice, and overthrow all sanctuaries and alters of the gods they might come upon.”

Although not a “writing” as used herein, it is useful to note the writing of Josephus in his book Against Apion regarding a Jew hater, Apion, who went to Rome when a delegation of Jews from Alexandria went to ask Roman Emperor Gaius Caligula for redress after the 38 C.E. pogrom. Here is how Philo described Apion’s actions;

On the Jewish residents of Alexandria, Apion emphasized their foreign origin, and their separate residence, and questioned their right to be called Alexandrians. Through a history of their activities in the Ptolemaic period, he portrayed the Jews as unpatriotic and un-Alexandrian, disloyal to their rulers, and properly excluded from political privileges. Their refusal to honor Alexandrian gods[3] and their responsibility for recent disturbances made absurd the claim of some Alexandrian citizens, and their failure to pay typical honors to the emperor made them all politically suspect to the Empire.”

This passage seems to be an early precursor of a view repeated again and again throughout history.

As with the case of Rome (see below), Jews refused to assimilate into Greek society and as such were viewed as enemies. The writings and environment of this, being the first and thus the basis, is carried on through the years as teachers taught students based on these texts, students studied these texts and wrote their own texts and talks. But it all begins with the Greek and Roman writings and teachings directed to encouraging people to leave their religion and join another. This was not anti-Semitism as it has come to be known in the modern world, especially so because Jews who left Judaism for other religions were accepted; whereas, today, anti-Semitism maintains that “once a Jew, always a Jew”.

2. Roman Writings^[4]

In Rome, the practices of Judaism which were peculiar with respect to the practices of the Romans, as well as Jewish exclusivism and the contempt Jews exhibited for pagan practices as well as a fear that Judaism would become a popular religion^[5] and a desire to occupy geography occupied by Jews, created hostility which was expressed in the literature of the time (Seneca, Tractis, Tacitus, and others). Furthermore, the problems the Romans were having with Israel, created an environment in which any writing which was favorable to the Jews would probably be, if not censored, totally prevented, and any writing that was anti-Jewish was encouraged and distributed as much as possible. This climate created a breeding ground for anti-Semitic literature^[6]. However, for some time, the Jews were somewhat protected by some Roman Emperors, but the favor of the Roman Emperors ended with Caligula (AD 37) who desired his own deity status. The anti-Jewish sentiment was taken even further under Constantin. The writings, preachings and teachings of this time were subject to strict censorship and any writings, teachings or preachings that were not anti-Semitic probably did not make it to publication or retention, and in fact, such anti-Semitic writings, teachings etc were encouraged^[7], while anything that was positive for Judaism, or possibly merely neutral, was probably censored and even destroyed[8]. In fact, it might even be theorized that the Romans actually encouraged anti-Semitic teaching as a way of dividing the populace of Israel and possibly encouraging civil war which would keep a populace divided and weak and easy to control for the Romans.

As will be discussed below in the section on Christian influences on anti-Semitism, many  early Christian writings emphasized that the Jews were responsible for Jesus’s death when, in fact, it was the Romans who actually performed the act, so as to deflect responsibility for this act away from the Romans. This type of writing would be acceptable to the Romans; whereas, writings attributing responsibility to the Romans would, at best be censored, and at worst subject the author to severe retribution by the Romans. This apologetic desire to play down Roman responsibility for Jesus’s death is consistent with the thesis of both this section of the essay and the section suggesting that Christian teaching has contributed to anti-Semitism. In actuality, there is nothing in early Christian writings that clearly indicates a rift between the Jesus followers and Jews during Jesus’s lifetime. There may be slight inferences in some writings, such as Corinthians 1:23 which only refers to Jesu’s death merely as a “stumbling block to Jews”. It seems that the Jews of this time considered Jesus in a manner that was similar to the way the viewed Enoch, Elijah, the righteous martyrs, Ezra, and Baruch[9].

The teachings and writings of this time were never totally expunged. When an early body of literature espouses a particular idea, it is likely that later literature, which will certainly be influenced by, if not actually based on, this early literature will continue the thoughts expressed in the early literature and may even expand those thoughts^[10]. The original bias was continued and even exacerbated, especially if it served the purpose of those competing with the Jewish religion for converts, or competing with Jews for the minds of the people, or competing with Jews for business, or for numerous other secular and spiritual reasons. Thus, the basis of anti-Semitism was born and furthered^[11].

 

Preview of the next post:

The next post, post number 13 of 33,cotinues discussing other causes of anti-Semitism.

 

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[1] The Egyptian Priest Manetho.

 

[2] See, e.g., the Book of Daniel, especially Daniel 9:26-27, and the Books of Maccabees.

[3] Gaius Caligula proclaimed himself a god, but the Jews of Egypt refused to recognize him as god and refused to participate in emperor worship.

 

[4] See Benjamin Isaac, “The Ancient Mediterranean and the Pre-Christian Era,” in Albert S. Lindermann and Richard S. Levy, Anti-Semitism: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp 34-36. This racial anti-Semitism was carried forward in the Middle Ages and certainly through the Nazi era, and, as discussed below, some forms of this is found today.

 

[5] Seneca, On Superstition: “The vanquished have given their laws to the victors.” Which was his way of expressing exasperation at the spread of Judaism among Romans. Many Romans were repulsed by the practice of gladiator fights, Roman Paganism and the like, and thus were potential converts to Judaism. Steps were taken to discourage this movement.

 

^[6] An excellent and thorough discussion of the Roman attitude toward the Jews as represented in the writing of the time is presented by Robert Eisenman in “James the Brother of Jesus” published by Viking in 1996. For more on the subject of artists who are forced to create only what the regime wants, see Artists Under Hitler Collaboration and Survival in Nazi Germany by Jonathan Petroolos, Yale 2015.

^[7] See, for example, Cicero and Seneca. Seneca: “The customs of that most accursed nation have gained such strength that they have been now received in all lands; the conquered have given laws to the conquerors”(quote from De Superstitione by Augustine in “City of God” 6.ii); Cicero: “Even while Jerusalem was standing and the Jews were at peace with us, the practice of their sacred rites was at variance with the glory of our empire, the dignity of our name, the customs of our ancestors. But now it is even more so, when that nation by its armed resistance has shown what it thinks of our rule.” (Pro Flacco, 28.69)

[8] A perfect example of this is Josephus’s The Jewish War which primarily written while Josephus was living in Rome in Vespasians’s home. Prior to publication, Josephus submitted the manuscript to Vespaian and Titus for their seal of approval. Of course, the work would be slanted against the Jews (Josephus blames the Jews for starting the war in the mistaken belief that God was on their side rather than the side of the Romans who had conquered most of the world hence proving that God was on their side). Josephus even depicts the rebels (Jews) living in Jerusalem as vicious outlaws who caused the famine in the city. Anyone reading this account by Josephus thus would blame the Jews themselves for the destruction of their Temple. Josephus goes on to indicate that the Roman capture of the city and destruction of the Temple was actually a liberation from the tyranny of some Jews. Josephus even glorifies the crimes committed against the defeated Jews by the Roman soldiers The entire work is tainted by this pre-publication review and approval by the Romans and its tenor and import is clearly anti-Semitic.

 

[9] It is not only the writings of the Roman period that contributed to this view of Jews, the writings of the Hellenists, such as Stephen who spoke out against the Temple and its teachings and laws (perhaps even characterizing the Temple as being idolatrous), also added to the negative view of at least some Jewish sects or movements.

 

[10] For example, one Archbishop Agobard preached fiery sermons in the nine century accusing Jews of diabolical practices that would influence many medieval Christian thinkers and influence their writings and teachings and thus influence writings and teachings of those exposed to the thinkers, see, Ploiakov, History of Anti-Semitism, vol. I, pp. 29-32.

 

[11] As will be understood when the process for determining if an act is anti-Semitic is examined later in this essay, it is possible that the early acts of the Romans could be considered as politically motivated to quell rebellion in Israel and keep the citizens under control and thus were motivated by political and national needs and not hatred of the Jews because they were Jews.

 

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